The Teachings of Confucius
Confucius was dedicated to cultivating shi (scholar-officials) and junzi (exemplary persons), that is, to nurturing talent for achieving benevolent governance and rule by virtue. He placed great importance on a person’s inner qualities and outward expression, once proposing the notion that “When native substance and cultural refinement are properly blended, then we have the junzi.” He believed that only consistency between inner self and outward appearance could constitute a truly refined and cultured junzi. Consequently, his educational approach equally emphasised moral integrity and talent, combining moral education with intellectual instruction. As stated in the Analects (Shu Er): “The Master taught four things: culture, conduct, loyalty, and trustworthiness.”
The most fundamental element of Confucius’s teaching was moral education, aimed at strengthening his disciples’ character and moral cultivation. Taking “ren” (benevolence/humaneness) as the supreme goal, Confucius provided detailed answers on numerous occasions to his disciples’ questions to enable them to accurately grasp and understand ren. For instance, “To be resolute, firm, simple, and slow to speak is close to ren,” meaning that being strong and upright, decisive and sincere, and cautious in speech can all be considered approaching ren. He highly valued his students’ moral sentiments, stating: “To be poor without resentment is difficult; to be rich without arrogance is easy.” He also said: “The ‘Guan Ju’ expresses joy without becoming licentious, and sorrow without falling into excessive grief.” This indicates that personal emotions like joy, anger, grief, and happiness should have their proper measure and not be excessive. Furthermore, “The benevolent person loves others” did not mean loving everything without principle; “The junzi too has his dislikes,” and “Only the benevolent person can truly love others or dislike others.” Confucius also recognised that human emotions are easily impulsive and require restraint and a sense of proportion. To this end, he proposed the doctrine of the “Mean” (zhongyong) as a guiding standard for balancing moral emotions, to prevent the one-sidedness of “Wishing life to those you love [and] death to those you hate,” and to avoid being swayed by emotion or extremism, aiming instead for impartiality and knowing when to stop.
Confucius believed that a person of ren must be resolute in his purpose: “The commander of the forces of a large state may be carried off, but the will of even a common man cannot be taken from him.” If one possesses the will to seek ren, one can achieve it: “Is ren so far away? If I simply desire ren, it arrives.” “The determined shi and the benevolent person do not seek to live at the expense of harming ren, but may sacrifice their lives to preserve ren.” This means that such individuals would rather sacrifice their lives to defend the principle of ren than cling to life at the expense of it. The external form embodying ren is “li” (ritual/ propriety). He said, “To master the self and return to li is ren,” meaning to restrain oneself and exercise self-control so that one’s daily actions align with li. Furthermore, “If you do not study li, you will have no means to take your stand.”
In his specific teaching, Confucius used the Book of Songs, the Book of Documents, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals as his teaching materials.
* The Book of Songs was used primarily in ceremonies, remonstration, rhetoric, and the composition and recitation of poetry to express intent. Confucius taught the Book of Songs focusing on the “gentle and sincere” poetic education. For example, he evaluated its first poem, the “Guan Ju,” as “expressing joy without becoming licentious, and sorrow without falling into excessive grief.” He believed that studying the Book of Songs could train one’s ability for verbal expression: “If you do not study the Songs, you will have no means to speak.” The Zuo Zhuan records 251 instances of feudal lords and ministers reciting or quoting the Songs. A gentleman of the time who could not recite poetry was looked down upon. Once, explaining the importance of the poetic education to his disciples, he said: “Why is it that none of you, my disciples, study the Songs? The Songs can stimulate the mind, enhance observation, foster sociability, and express grievances. Near at hand, one learns from them how to serve one’s father; far away, one learns how to serve one’s lord. One also acquires extensive knowledge of the names of birds, beasts, plants, and trees.” In his view, reading the Songs could not only inspire emotion but also allow observation of social customs and their prosperity or decline, foster mutual understanding, provide a means for satire or criticism of government affairs, and even enable one to apply its principles in serving parents and, ultimately, in governing and serving one’s lord, while also learning about nature. Confucius emphasised that the purpose of studying the Songs was essentially for governance: “Though a man may be able to recite the three hundred Songs, if he is assigned official duties and cannot perform them effectively, or sent on missions to the four quarters and cannot answer specific questions, then what use is it, even if he has memorised many?” He pointed out that one must be able to apply the Songs flexibly; mere rote memorisation, without the ability to handle state affairs or independently use it in diplomacy, was useless. Zigong, the disciple most skilled in diplomatic activities, was a prime example of someone who could apply his learning of the Songs and was thus praised by Confucius.
* The Book of Documents is a collection of historical records concerning major political events and speeches from antiquity. Confucius used it as a textbook for politics and history, requiring his disciples to use it as a basis for governance, practicing the Way, and establishing their character. The Analects records Confucius quoting the Book of Documents three times, each time using antiquity to illustrate the present and explain how to govern and practice the Way.
* The Book of Rites refers primarily to the Classic of Rites (Yili), a book specifically detailing various ceremonial rituals and codes of conduct. A large part consisted of the “Rites of the Shi,” which were specific norms for the conduct and establishment of the shi class. Confucius used the Book of Rites both as a textual document for study and as a crucial manual for learning the practical skills of ritual performance. His teaching of ritual focused on practical application. Because ritual was the standard for conduct in establishing oneself and navigating the world, he warned his son, Kong Li: “If you do not study the rites, you will have no means to take your stand.”
* The Book of Music was also an important teaching material, now lost. Musical education involved not only basic musical skills but also music theory and aesthetics. Confucius advocated governing through ritual and music, using ritual for regulation and restraint, and music for cultivation and influence. He integrated the Book of Songs, Rites, and Music: “Be stimulated by the Songs, take your stand through the rites, and be perfected by music.” In his view, one sets his purpose, then studies the Songs; after studying the Songs, he understands the rites; and only after understanding the rites can he consciously cultivate his disposition through the enlightenment of music.
* The Book of Changes consists of the Basic Text and the Commentaries. The content of the Basic Text existed before Confucius, while the Commentaries were completed by later Confucians. In Confucius’s time, the Book of Changes was a divination text dealing with yin-yang and the eight trigrams, mysterious and complex in content, preserved relatively completely in the state of Lu. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, “Confucius in his old age loved the Changes,” and “read the Changes so thoroughly that the leather thongs binding the bamboo strips broke three times.” He studied it deeply and drew upon its naive dialectical thinking to educate his disciples.
* The Spring and Autumn Annals was compiled by Confucius himself and completed two years before his death. Using the various state chronicles of the time as his basis, he integrated the major events from the historical records of different states, first using it as a teaching material before editing it into the transmitted version we have today. The Annals contains Confucius’s sociopolitical theory, determining names and statuses, embedding praise and blame, and conveying profound meanings through subtle language. It served as his textbook for political and historical education.
Confucius also used the “Six Arts” to cultivate his disciples’ abilities: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. These involved the explanation and practice of six specific skills: performing rituals, playing music, archery, driving chariots, writing, and calculation. These were the essential basic accomplishments for the aristocratic class of the time. Consequently, most of Confucius’s students were versatile and talented.
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