Confucius’ Teaching Methods
Throughout his lifelong dedication to teaching practice, Confucius developed a set of highly valuable teaching methods.
First, he advocated combining “learning” and “thinking,” proposing the insightful view that “Learning without thought is labour lost; thought without learning is perilous.” He encouraged being “diligent in learning” and “never feeling weary of learning,” emphasising learning from people, from events, and from books. One must “study and practice it in due time” and “review the old and know the new.” He believed that “When walking in a party of three, my teachers are always present,” and one should “not feel ashamed to ask and learn from one’s inferiors.” He also believed that if a person does not study diligently but only engages in fruitless contemplation and empty thought, it would be of no benefit. He once said, “I have spent whole days without eating and whole nights without sleeping, in order to think. It was of no use. It is better to study.” However, learning without analytical thinking makes it difficult to understand and digest knowledge, and can lead to confusion and uncertainty. Confucius particularly promoted independent thinking, earnest inquiry, and reflection on immediate issues, seeking the root and source of things. When encountering matters, one should ask “why” several times. He said, “When confronted with a matter, one who does not ask ‘What to do? What to do?’—I can do nothing with such a person!” He criticised the intellectually lazy who “stuff themselves with food all day without applying their minds to anything,” and taught his students to “hear much and set aside what is doubtful,” daring to identify problems to cultivate their thinking ability.
Second, he taught according to the student’s aptitude and guided them skilfully and step by step. Confucius was adept at starting from the actual situation of his students and “teaching according to their aptitude” based on differences in their intellectual capacity. He said, “To those whose talent is above average, one may teach the higher things. To those who are below average, one should not teach the higher things.” That is to say, for those with above-average intelligence, one can discuss profound knowledge; for those with below-average intelligence, one should not teach such profound content. He taught different content based on the varying aptitudes of his students. He often gave different answers to the same question depending on the individual. Ran Qiu was timid and prone to hesitation when facing matters, so Confucius taught him to seize the initiative in all things and to act immediately upon hearing about a task. Zhong You was bold and decisive, so Confucius, fearing he might act rashly and invite trouble, taught him to always take a step back and consult his elders before acting. Confucius was also skilled at understanding his students’ different temperaments and interests, guiding them patiently and methodically. He believed that a person should not only understand the importance of learning but also take pleasure in it: “They who know the truth are not equal to those who love it, and they who love it are not equal to those who delight in it.” Only by cultivating an interest in learning could one establish self-motivation in studying, thereby generating enthusiasm for learning to the point of never growing tired of it.
Confucius often used vivid examples from daily life and philosophical analogies to instruct his students. For instance, using “It passes on like this, never ceasing day or night” to analogise the relentless passage of time, aiming to encourage his disciples to cherish time; using “When the year becomes cold, then we know how the pine and the cypress are the last to lose their leaves” to symbolise integrity and moral strength, teaching students to have the spirit of enduring hardship and perseverance. Such teaching methods were welcomed by his disciples and achieved excellent results. Yan Hui once sighed in admiration: “The Master skilfully leads one on step by step.”
Third, he excelled at using the heuristic teaching method, paying attention to cultivating students’ thirst for knowledge and initiative in learning. He advocated: “I do not open up the truth to one who is not eager to get knowledge, nor help out any one who is not anxious to explain himself. When I have presented one corner of a subject to any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson.” This means that when educating students, one should foster their enthusiasm and initiative in learning. While teaching, one should induce students to think actively. If they still cannot grasp the essence after thinking, then guide them further. Secondly, one should inspire them to speak out when they wish to express their opinion but cannot find the words. Furthermore, one must enable students to “draw inferences about other cases from one instance” and “comprehend by analogy”; if you point out the east to them and they cannot deduce the west, south, and north, then there is no need to force the teaching further.
Fourth, he encouraged discussion between teacher and students to achieve the benefit of mutual improvement in teaching and learning. *The Analects* records many instances of questions and answers from discussions between teacher and students. He had students state their aspirations, stated his own, and then commented on each, which can be said to be an excellent method of positive education. Confucius also sincerely welcomed students to criticise him. His esteemed disciple Zi Lu often offered him critical opinions. Once, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family in Lu, sent for Confucius, and Confucius intended to go. Zi Lu bluntly criticised him: “Is there no other way? Why must you go to Gongshan Furao, who is in rebellion?” Although Confucius offered an explanation, he accepted Zi Lu’s advice and did not go. Another time, Bi Xi, a retainer of the Fan family in Jin, invited Confucius, who also considered going. Zi Lu again criticised: “I have heard you say, Sir, that a superior man does not enter the territory of one who personally does wrong. Now Bi Xi is in rebellion at Zhongmou; how can you think of going to him?” Confucius had to admit his eagerness to secure an official position and salary, but ultimately accepted Zi Lu’s criticism and abandoned the idea. Yan Hui was the disciple Confucius most admired, but Yan Hui obeyed the Master’s every word unquestioningly and never offered criticism. Therefore, Confucius reproached him, saying that Yan Hui never offered him differing opinions, which prevented the mutual benefit of teacher and student learning from each other.
Confucius also pioneered a teaching method of expounding his political views and philosophical ideas to students through evaluating historical figures and commenting on contemporary politics. Confucius commented on many figures, from Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, King Wen, King Wu, the Duke of Zhou, Bo Yi, and Shu Qi, down to various famous personalities of the Spring and Autumn period like Guan Zhong and Zi Chan. He even evaluated his own disciples. He acknowledged Guan Zhong and Zi Chan as possessing “ren” (benevolence/humaneness); Bo Yi and Shu Qi yielded the throne to each other, and Confucius praised them as “seeking ren and obtaining ren.” Confucius had clear likes and dislikes, and he criticised those who were unworthy. Zang Wenzhong, a high minister of Lu, knew well that Liuxia Hui was a virtuous and capable scholar but refused to employ him. Confucius criticised him for occupying an official position idly without doing practical work. Ji Kangzi oppressed and exploited the people, leading many to become thieves out of necessity. When Ji Kangzi asked Confucius what to do, Confucius said, “If you yourself were not covetous of wealth, even if you rewarded theft, no one would steal!” Through his evaluations of people, Confucius taught his students to distinguish right from wrong, good from evil, setting an ideal personality model for their moral cultivation. He closely watched and cared about current events, always ready to state his stance and promote his ideas. When the Ji family planned to attack Zhuanyu, Ran You and Zi Lu informed Confucius. Confucius firmly opposed Ji’s military aggression and immediately clearly stated his view: “The rulers of states and heads of families need not worry about underpopulation, but about unequal distribution; not worry about poverty, but about instability. For where there is equitable distribution, there is no poverty; where there is harmony, there is no underpopulation; and where there is stability, there is no danger.” From these comments, we can see Confucius’s breadth of vision and ambition, and it also reflects his good style of study—linking theory with practice—in educating students through real-life examples.
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